Television effects on Children Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Television effects on Children - Research Paper Example The essay discusses the effects of television on children in today’s society. Media greatly influences the character of many children. That is why most children chose the rock stars as their role model. Their way of dressing and character gives an affirmation to this. Research shows that children spend three to five hours watching television (Pressley 12). Television has both negative and positive effects on children. It educates, open their minds to new ideas, enable them to learn more about their culture as well as other people’s culture, it also gives them the chance to learn more about wildlife and the world that is other continents and planets lastly, it entertains (Datta 118). The positive effects only apply if the child chooses the right programme. On the other hand, television can be very detrimental on children. For instances, many movies show that one can achieve goals in life easily. This is to say that, television will display how ordinary people do extraord inary things to achieve a certain level of success for instance, engaging in theft. By so doing, children inherit this believes and presume how the school curriculum is wasting their productive time (Pressley 14). Because of this, children become violet and engage in theft activities to attain certain status in life. In addition, television creates stereotypes about life (Datta 117). For instance, men are portrayed to be wealthy and handsome while women are young and attractive. This makes them to assume that the society is supposed to be in that order. Because of that, many children have tried to achieve this level of life in the wrong way for instance theft as stated above and prostitution. As a child grows, television affects their health, weight, and sleeping hours. As children spend more time in front of television, screens they do not engage in physical activities. Sleep is also important for a growing child, lack of enough sleep results to fatigue (Voort 32). This makes the c hild to lose concentration in class affecting his or her performance. Recent research shows that the number of obese children in United States of American has doubled compared to the other years (Pressley 17). The main cause of this is many hours that the children spend on television screens. Television affects the social life of a child. A child may prefer to watch a certain programme instead of playing with other children. This also applies in the family where the child does not have time with the parents because of the television. Social interaction is an important aspect for a child’s development (Voort 32). Research has shown that about 85 percent of the children who are obese are vulnerable to diseases such as diabetes, high blood pressure, depression, and heart problems (Pressley 15). This is to say that diabetes increases the risk of getting chronic diseases. The increase in obese children results to increase in obese adults this reduces their life span. The radical f rom the society lowers their self-esteem (Voort 32). This makes them not to feel accepted by the members of the society. To curb this parents are supposed to limit hours that children spend on the television and encourage their children to engage in physical activities. The other negative effect of television is that it encourages aggressive behaviors among the children. The aggressive behavi

Criminal Justice Masters Program Comprehensive Exam Essay

Criminal Justice Masters Program Comprehensive Exam - Essay Example It is also otherwise referred to as ownership or proprietas (Encyclopedia Britannica, 2012). This indicates that even in the earliest versions of law in the West, it is recognized that a person has the right to protect and defend his dominium – his family, his property, and his well-being – from external aggression that harms or threatens to harm it. The right of self-defense is claimed by the aggressor or defendant charged with a violent crime. Some of these crimes include: battery (striking someone against his or her will), assault with a deadly weapon, assault with intent to commit serious bodily injury, manslaughter, and first or second degree murder (Bergman & Berman, 2009, p. 314). Self-defense is a justifying circumstance. It is an affirmative defense in that it justifies the use or threat of force exerted by an individual when he or she believes that there is a danger of an imminent, immediate, and unlawful infliction of serious bodily harm or death (Lippman, 20 10, p. 216). A criminal act, such as a homicide, is justified when it is resorted to in order to prevent a greater, imminent, and immediate harm, when there are no other equally effective alternatives possible. The court quoted: â€Å"all homicide is malicious, and of course, amounts to murder, unless†¦ justified by the command or permission of the law; excused on the account of accident or self-preservation; or alleviated into manslaughter, by being the involuntary consequence of some act not strictly lawful or (if voluntary) occasioned by some sudden and sufficiently violent provocation† (Blackstone, 1854, p. 201 in U.S. v Peterson, par. 14). In the modern application of the law, much of Blackstone’s commentaries are still relevant, although jurisprudence has enumerated the requisites that support a claim of self-defense. These are that the defendant: (1) must not have provoked or been the aggressor in the assault; (2) must have reasonable grounds for the belief that he is faced with imminent danger of serious bodily injury; (3) must not use more force than that which appears reasonably necessary; and (4) must do everything in his power consistent with his own safety to avoid the danger and must retreat if retreat is practicable (Lippman, 2010, p. 222). A special case when self-defense cannot be resorted to as a defense is when the accused invoking it is the very person who instigated or provoked the aggressive act. What this exactly means can only be explained by a perusal of case law where the principle was applied with varying premises and results. Case Law: United States v. Thomas, 34 F2. 44 (1994, 2nd Cir) The case concerned the fatal shooting of Wallie Howard, a Syracuse police officer who worked undercover for the Federal Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) during a â€Å"buy-bust† operation on 30 October 1990. In this instance, the suspected cocaine dealers decided to likewise rob Howard, who was seated in the front passen ger seat of a car. The perpetrators, Stewart and Lawrence, were each armed with .22 and .357 revolvers. Stewart tried to shoot Howard but failed because there was no bullet in the chamber. Howard gets off a shot and hits Stewart in the shoulder. Lawrence, standing at the rear passenger side of the car, shot at Howard, striking the rear of his head and instantly killing him. The two were arrested minutes later. The defendants, Lawrence and Stewart, claimed self-defense in that Howard was the first to draw his gun, and Lawrence believed that Howard

A Research Proposal concerning Computer Operating Systems Education Essay

A Research Proposal concerning Computer Operating Systems Education - Essay Example My interest in this subject started as a realization, servicing computers at The University of La Verne. There seemed to be a great familiarity of an application when a worker was given instructions in a specific subject. When using a new application, the same faculty or staff became disorientated and frustrated. I pondered; could knowledge of Operating Systems help subjects adapt to new programs easier? My observations were that the more experience a customer had using a computer, the easier it was to adapt to new types of work. Of the subjects interviewed, few have taken an actual course on the operating system of their computer. The comfort level of the subjects who had used several operating systems, over a span of years, were very good at applying learned knowledge to new applications. Consider operating a computer is as much of our professional skill set as language or mathematics. Efficacy theory by Albert Butera states ‘Self Efficacy is people’s perception of their ability to plan and take action to reach a particular goal.† Another definition by Compeau and Higgins 1995; Marakas et al. 1998) is Computer self-efficacy (CSE) refers to individuals' judgment of their capabilities to use computers in diverse situations (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self_efficacy, 2006) I theorize that if a worker has a good basic knowledge of an operating system, he or she will build confidence through positive experiences. This encounter will drive a user to experiment and discover effective ways of using multiple applications.

Literature Paper Essay Example for Free

Literature Paper Essay Sophocles two plays, namely the AD 6717-658 Oedipus the King as well as the 658-693 Antigone, are dominated by elements of conflict both external and internal. The external conflict involves two persons with opposing viewpoints being engaged in a physical or philosophical confrontation. On the other hand, the internal cases of conflict occur when certain individuals in the 2 plays encounter dilemmas regarding doing things that their consciences counsel against. Further, the playwright describes various characters handling the conflicting situations in a variety of ways. For example, some characters just choose to give in, become complicit, and do the things that their consciences advise against. A notable example of this phenomenon in Oedipus the King is Queen Jocasta’s action of bowing to King Laius’ (her husband’s) pressure and thus giving away the young Oedipus to be disposed off. Likewise, in Antigone, Ismene depicts the same behavior of allowing outside pressure to adversely influence her conscience-led aspirations. To this end, Ismene refuses to join efforts with Antigone her defiant sister in burying Polyneices the 2 sisters’ departed brother. Conversely, the 2 plays contain cases whereby physical person-to-person conflicts arise. For instance, in Antigone, Creon Thebe’s ruler holds viewpoints that conflict with those of Haemon Creon’s son. To illustrate, when Creon detains and intends to murder Antigone Haemon’s fiance son and father are at loggerheads. The situation deteriorates to the extent of father and son insulting one another. Haemon angrily leaves, promising that he will never come back. Similarly, in Oedipus the King, King Oedipus becomes conflicted with prophet Tiresias because Tiresias is experiencing an internal sort of conflict. The prophet is aware that telling King Oedipus the truth about who killed King Laius would yield no good results. On the other hand, King Oedipus is very intent on ascertaining the true identity of Lauis’ killer, not knowing that Oedipus himself killed Laius. The conflict between the 2 personalities pushes them to exchange harsh words. This conflict is resolved when Tiresias utters the definitive paradox that Laius was indeed killed by his (Laius’) son. All in all, through the two plays Antigone and Oedipus the King, playwright Sophocles describes both external and external cases of conflict, with the conflicts being resolved to the detriment of a certain individual. To begin with, Queen Jocasta’s conflict regarding either disposing off or saving the life of Oedipus her son ends with the infant son being disadvantaged when he is disposed off. The hopeless Oedipus passes from the hands of Jocasta, to a servant, to a lowly shepherd and eventually to a King’s palace. Through such transition, the baby encounters various hardships. Firstly, he risks being killed and then spends some time out in the open fields where he is exposed to the elements. Further, it is notable that the shepherd who eventually passes Oedipus on to King Polybus has no means of keeping and raising the condemned child. Jocasta’s indecisiveness when she faces the internal conflict of either saving or killing Oedipus thus causes the son immense problems. In this case, Sophocles describes a conflict being resolved to the detriment of a particular personality Oedipus. In a similar version, in Antigone, Sophocles describes Antigone’s conflict as resulting in a string of misfortunes. After Creon the King unjustly orders that Polyneices should be ignored regarding proper burial, with Eteocles being accorded a fitting send-off, Antigone Polyneices’ sister becomes mentally conflicted. Antigone immediately detects Creon’s partiality in ordering for this obviously discriminative treatment. She thus cannot demonstrate complicity by adhering to Creon’s unjust edict. The determined girl therefore opts to secretly accord Polyneices a proper burial. By doing this, Antigone risks being put to death as indicated by Creon’s directive. She however gallantly carries on with her plan and even boldly defending her decisions before the King. Related to Antigone’s mental conflict is Ismene’s dilemma whereby she has to choose to either stand by Antigone or obey Creon’s controversial decree. By adhering to the directives that Creon has issued, Ismene will in effect be betraying Polyneices her brother. Conversely, by deciding to join Antigone in properly burying Polyneices, Ismene will be showing sisterly responsibility to her departed brother as well as to Antigone. In addition, Ismene risks being put to death as per Creon’s orders should she go by Antigone’s bold decision. Eventually, Ismene shies away and avoids going by Antigone’s plans. On her part, Antigone boldly accords Polyneices a proper send-off, thus attracting Creon’s wrath. Ultimately, the 2 sisters find themselves behind bars, with Ismene being a sort of martyr since she did not participate in Antigone’s defiant actions. It is at this point that Antigone faces another conflict when Ismene offers to suffer the consequences of Antigone’s actions. Antigone is aware that it would be unjust to allow Ismene suffer the same fate as Antigone. Although outside pressure eventually forces Creon to let the 2 girls walk free, the conflict that Ismene and Antigone face is resolved with disastrous results. Further, the decision that Antigone makes because of being mentally conflicted serves to make Creon’s son Haemon to also become conflicted. To illustrate, after Creon puts Antigone in prison, intending to kill the girl, Haemon intervenes, trying to persuade Creon to let the girl walk away. Haemon does this because he is an intimate friend to Antigone. He thus cannot allow his father to kill Antigone owing to the love that Haemon has for Antigone. It is worth noting that Haemon is in a tight spot when he approaches Creon, persuading the King to let Antigone go away. This is because Haemon risks being branded a traitor or someone who demonstrates insubordination towards the King. On the other hand, should Haemon decide to keep quiet, allowing the King to do as he wills with Antigone, Haemon will demonstrate lack of commitment towards Antigone. Son and father thus confront each other because they hold varying viewpoints about the incarceration of Antigone. Again, Sophocles describes a person-to-person conflict being resolved in a negative way. After Haemon and Creon hurl insults at each other, Haemon walks away, promising that he will never come back. True to his words, Haemon commits suicide. Likewise, through the Oedipus the King play, Sophocles describes the shepherd who witnessed King Laius’ murder as well as Oedipus as being conflicted both externally and internally. For instance, King Oedipus desires to know every detail of his (Oedipus’) childhood. On the other hand, the shepherd is aware that should he become aware of his past, Oedipus will only experience pain. The shepherd thus only gives certain details of Oedipus childhood after which he begs to be allowed to stop the narration. By doing this, the shepherd seeks to shield Oedipus from the pain that will inevitably result when the King learns of his (the King’s) past. Such good intentions are however misunderstood by Oedipus as the shepherd’s demonstration of insubordination. Consequently, Oedipus threatens the shepherd with death should he hold back any information from the King. The shepherd is thus deeply conflicted. He is very sure that when Oedipus learns the truth about Oedipus’ lineage, the King will surely be gravely hurt. Out of fear for his life, the shepherd finally explains all the details about Oedipus life. Consequently, the King becomes distraught. Further, the Queen commits suicide, after which Oedipus gorges out both his eyes and goes into self-imposed exile. Once more, Sophocles describes the conflict between the shepherd and King Oedipus as being resolved in a bad manner as it results in the deaths of Queen Jocasta and the self-imposed exile of King Oedipus. In conclusion, though his 2 plays Oedipus the King and Antigone playwright Sophocles describes numerous instances whereby various characters are conflicted either externally or internally. One notable case of mental conflict in Antigone is the instance when Antigone has to choose to either remain loyal to Polyneices her brother or obey Creon’s dictatorial decree. Conversely, the instance when Creon and Haemon exchange bitter words denotes external conflict. On the other hand, in Oedipus the King, Jocasta’s indecision regarding whether to dispose off or save Oedipus represents internal conflict. The shepherd and Oedipus’ confrontation demonstrates external conflict. Further, all the conflicts that are presented in both Oedipus the King as well as in Antigone are resolved in ways that harm certain characters.

Causes and Effects of the Air France 447 Crash

Causes and Effects of the Air France 447 Crash Air France Flight 447 was an international, long-haul passenger flight, from Rio de Janeiro to Paris. On 1st June 2009 the aircraft crashed into the Atlantic Ocean killing everybody on board. The aircraft is thought to have crashed due to temporary inconsistencies between airspeed measurements, caused by the aircrafts pitot tubes being blocked by ice crystals. Ultimately, the autopilot disconnecting and the crew reacting incorrectly, led the aircraft to an aerodynamic stall from which they did not recover (BEA, 2012). The accident resulted from a combination of factors relating to both the technology of the aircraft and the training of the crew (BEA, 2012). The technological failures were: poor feedback mechanisms, unclear display of airspeed readings, confusing stall warnings, absence of visual information and poor indications by the Flight Director. Failures in training resulted in the crew; not responding to the stall warning, not being trained in icing of the Pitot tubes and lacking practical training in manually handling the aircraft. Moreover, incomprehension of the situation and poor management of emotions weakened the task sharing ability of the co-pilots. This accident has highlighted a number of human automation issues in aviation. Automated flight-control functions can remove some danger from aviation, however it also changes the activities, workloads, situation awareness and skill levels of the operators, which can cause problems (Hodgson, Siemieniuch Hubbard, 2013). The first problem highlighted by this accident is the crew’s change of role from operator to monitor. Flight deck automation uses the crew’s ability to perform a passive monitoring role, rather than an active operating role. One problem associated with this is a drop in vigilance (Mackworth, 1948), which is exacerbated when a system is highly reliable (Parasuraman, Molloy Singh, 1993). However, these accidents are not human operator errors, they are automation system design errors. More importantly, the crash of Flight 447 was partly attributed due to loss of situation awareness, possibly due to pilots having to perform a passive monitoring role. Monitoring roles can reduce the situation awareness of the current â€Å"flying state† of the aircraft, as well as the awareness of its predicted future behaviour (Sarter Woods, 1995). Lack of situation awareness can also be an outcome of complex automation, such as a having a complicated flight automation system which can result in pilot confusion due to poor interface design. In the case of Flight 447 the BEA (2010) report shows that a poor Human Computer Interface played a main part in the crash. There were a number of reasons for this: the Flight Director display was inaccurate, therefore accounting for most of the wrong pitch-up inputs due to an altimeter error. Airspeed inconsistencies that had been identified by computers were not clearly displayed. Failure messages were generated but only showed the consequences not the origin of the problem. There was no indication of a blocked pitot tube on the flight displays. There was also an absence of Angle of Attack information, which is important in identifying and preventing a stall. This information was sent to on-board computers but there were no displays to convey this information. Furthermore, as the level and complexity of automation increases, the levels of experience and skill needed to be able to recover from a failure or unexpected situation have increased (Hodgson, Siemieniuch Hubbard, 2013). This is because there is less time for the operator to become aware of and correct developing problems. For example in Flight 447 the crew had less than three minutes to find the problem and take action. Additionally, in the case of aircraft, the ability to recover from a failure or unexpected situation relies on the crews manual flying abilities too. However, with highly automated aircrafts there is a loss of manual flying skills experienced by pilots (Wood, 2004). Fanjoy and Young (2005) found that training and airline policies on automation, often lead to a lack of opportunities to practice resulting in pilot complacency as well as the deterioration of flying skills. Furthermore, Young, Fanjoy and Suckow (2006) found that crews who used the most flight deck automation had poorer manual flying skills than others. This has implications when there is an abnormal situation in which the automation system disengages without prior warning, as the crews will rely on their manual flying skills. Furthermore, automation will maintain stability until it is no longer possible, resulting in the aircraft going out of control as the flight crew take over, meaning crews need to have good manual fl ying skills. A further problem with this is that automation increases mental workload during high-load periods (Funk et al, 1999). This workload problem increases when there are situations that need further mental workload during an already high workload time. When the crew’s workload is high, developing failures of the automation system are more likely to be allowed to develop into a critical situation. For example, if damage has occurred or instrumentation has failed, the Flight Management System advice is often misleading or incorrect, and flight crews can be overloaded with a vast amount of information and alarms, making it difficult to identify what the problem is. For example, the crew of the A447 were faced with more than 50 simultaneous alarms.One alarm after another lit up the cockpit monitors. One after another, the autopilot, the automatic engine control system, and the flight computers shut themselves off (Traufetter, 2010). This lead to them not being able to understand or ide ntify what the problem was before it turned into a critical situation, ultimately ending in disaster. The above problem could be due automation being an inadequate crew member. Automation can act as a poorly trained, incommunicative member of the system’s crew. There is often poor interaction between crews and automation systems (Norman, 1990), yet there is a need for multisensory feedback to crews (Sarter 1999). In order for a crew to achieve a safe level of shared situation awareness, the automated system must become part of the crew. It needs to do this by communicating its adjustments in order to maintain shared situation awareness. Current automated systems may indicate adjustments on a dial or screen, but they do not typically draw attention to them because they lack situation awareness of the â€Å"bigger picture.† Clear communication can prevent accidents. For example in Flight 447 if there would have been clear communication that the pitot tube was frozen then this would have stopped the chain of events from unfolding. To improve automation it is proposed that aircraft should be made into more effective team players. A human–automation team should be defined as â€Å"the dynamic, interdependent coupling between one or more human operators and one or more automated systems requiring collaboration and coordination to achieve successful task completion† (Cuevas, Fiore, Caldwell Strater, 2007). Current automation systems perform as very inadequate team members, leaving the human operators or crew unprepared when failure occurs or unusual events arise. (Hodgson, Siemieniuch Hubbard, 2013). To improve human-automation interaction, systems should be able to trade and share control so that interacting with a system is more like interacting with a teammate (Scerbo, 2007). Future systems, such as Free Flight, are envisioned to have human–automation teams sharing and trading tasks (Inagaki, 2003) as situational demands change (van Dongen van Maanen, 2005). Such dynamic situations creat e occasions where human–automation teams can implicitly coordinate (Rico, Sanchez-Manzanares, Gil Gibson, 2008) on an almost exclusively cognitive basis (Hoc, 2001). This would enable automation systems to become good team players. Furthermore, good team players make their activities observable for fellow team players, and are easy to direct (Christofferson Woods, 2002). To be observable, automation activities should be presented in ways that capitalise on human strengths (Klein 1998). For example; they should be: Event-based: representations need to highlight changes and events, Future-oriented: Human operators in dynamic systems need support for anticipating changes and knowing what to expect and where to look next and Pattern-based: operators must be able to quickly scan displays and pick up possible abnormalities without having to engage in difficult cognitive work. By relying on pattern-based representations, automation can change difficult mental tasks into straightfo rward perceptual ones. Overall, changes in workload, reduced situation awareness, reduced operator skills, automation failures and unexpected behaviours have caused many accidents over the past three decades, including flight 447. As a result of these factors, manual recovery when the automation system fails is often compromised. These issues may have been exacerbated by having a tightly coupled system. Tight coupling reduces the ability to recover from small failures before they expand into large ones. Tighter coupling between parts spreads effects throughout the system more rapidly. This means that problems have greater and more complex effects that can spread quickly. When automated partners are strong, silent, clumsy and difficult to direct, then handling these demands becomes more difficult. The result is coordination failures and new forms of system failure. Currently it is argued that aircraft systems are only moderately tightly coupled. However, airlines, for financial reasons, are pressing for a r eduction of flight crews from three (pilot, co-pilot, and engineer) to two (pilot and co-pilot) on the grounds that computers and other devices reduce the engineering load. More automation in its system and reducing the number of controllers will lead to much tighter coupling resulting in less resources for recovery from incidents (Perrow, 2011). Now the problems with the automation in Flight 447 have been identified, it is important to understand how safety models contributed to the understanding of the accident and what the implications are for managing safety in the future, to prevent history from repeating itself. The first safety model and safety management strategy is known as Safety-I. According to Safety-I, things go wrong due to technical, human and organisational causes such as failures and malfunctions, with humans being viewed as a main hazard. The safety management principle is to react when something goes wrong; by investigating and identifying the causes of the accident and then trying to eliminate the causes or improve barriers. This results in safety being a condition where the number of adverse outcomes is as low as possible. The principles of safety-1 have been expressed by many different accident models; the best known accident model being the Swiss cheese model (Reason, 1990). This model posits that accidents occur due to multiple factors jointly. These factors align creating a possible trajectory for an accident. These can either be latent conditions, such as problems with the organisation due to its design or management, which are present in the organisation long before an incident is triggered. Active failures are mistakes made by human operators, which when combined with the latent failures, result in an accident. It states that that no one failure, human or technical, is sufficient to cause an accident. Rather, it happens due to the unlikely and often unforeseeable event of several contributing factors arising from different levels of the system. In the case of Flight 447 the model would allow each contributing factor to be identified. For example the technical faults would be: the Human Computer Interface, pitot tubes, controls not being linked between pilots, misleading stall warnings. Human faults would be the Co-pilot pulling back on stick, poor management of startle effect, poor communication and the captain leaving the room. Organisational faults would be poor training, delayed installing new pitot tubes, poor design of HCI. When put together all of these factors played a part in causing the accident. Looking for human errors after an event is a â€Å"safe† choice, as they can always be found in hindsight. Looking and finding human errors makes it easier to find who should be held accountable and where preventative measures should be aimed. However, when â€Å"the cause† has been attributed to individual error, the preventative measures are usually misaimed. Accidents occur from a combination of many factors and by blaming the individual, people often assume that the system is safe, as soon as it can get rid of the â€Å"bad apples†. However more recently, a proactive model of safety has been suggested. Proactive safety management is part of the aim of Safety-II, which argues that focusing on cases of failure does not show how to improve safety and that instead of looking at what goes wrong, there should be a focus on looking at what goes right in order to understand how that happens. In hindsight after an accident, many weaknesses existing in organisations are usually revealed. For example, detect the â€Å"deviations† from rules and regulation and find the â€Å"cause†. However, the fact that something did deviate from a prescribed rule is not necessarily a contributor to an accident or even an abnormal event. On the contrary, adaptations are often a norm rather than an exception (Reimana Rollenhagen, 2011). It should be acknowledged that the everyday performance variability needed to respond to varying conditions is the reason why things go right. Humans are consequently seen as a resource neces sary for system flexibility and resilience. The safety management principle is continuously to anticipate developments and events. When something goes wrong, we should begin by understanding how it usually goes right, instead of searching for specific causes that only explain the failure. This strategy posits that accidents are not resultant but emergent. In consequence of this, the definition of safety should be changed from ‘avoiding that something goes wrong’ to ‘ensuring that everything goes right’. The basis for safety and safety management must therefore be an understanding of why things go right, which means understanding everyday activities. Safety management must be proactive, so that interventions are made before something happens. In the case of Flight 447 safety management needs to ask: What could have been done before that flight to minimise the possible risks associated with it? (McDonald Ydalus, 2010) The risks were built into the operational situation before take-off. Routine measures in advance could not just prevent this accident happening again but provide a more general preventive shield against a wide range of system accidents. This has been explained in a FRAM analysis model (Hollagenel, 2004). In this model there is a need to understand the essential system functions, their variability and how these can resonate, in order to identify barriers for safety. Furthermore, another way to understand why an accident occurred is to determine why the control structure was ineffective (Leveson, 2004). Preventing future accidents requires designing a control structure that will enforce the necessary constraints. In systems theory, systems are seen as hierarchical structures, where each level puts constraints on the activity of the level below. This means that constraints or a lack of constraints at a higher level allow or control behaviour at a lower level (Checkland, 1981). The cause of an accident is viewed as the result of a lack of constraints due to inadequate enforcement of constraints on behaviour at each level of a socio-technical system. The model has two basic hierarchical control structures; one for system development and one for system operation, with interactions between them. Between the hierarchical levels of each control structure, good communication channels are needed. A downward reference channel provides the information needed to apply constraints on the level below and an upward measuring channel provides feedback about how effectively the constraints were applied. At each level, inadequate control may result from missing constraints, inadequately communicated constraints, or from constraints that are not enforced correctly at a lower level. (Leveson, 2011). Therefore, understanding why an accident occurred requires determining why the control structure was ineffective and preventing future accidents requires designing a control structure that will enforce the necessary constraints. Therefore the implications for managing safety are that by combining safety-I and safety-II techniques, so that there is a proactive focus looking at how everyday activities go right, then accidents could be prevented by being able to identify the organisational and societal problems, which can then be changed before an accident happens, for example by making sure the right constraints are in place. Overall, pilots are part of a complex human-automation system that can both increase and reduce the probability of an accident. Training, automation systems, and cockpit procedures can be changed so that certain mistakes will not be made again. However, it could be that with the inclusion of the humans and their variability, there will always be the possibility of an accident. However turning automation systems into effective team players may transform aviation, preventing avoidable catastrophes. Furthermore, safety management strategies should focus on how to be proactive in order to identify potential accidents before they happen, focusing on how variability and adjustments are a part of what goes right in everyday performance, which may prevent accidents from happening.

The Culture Practice Of Vani

The Culture Practice Of Vani Culture is the systems or way of life, which is shared by a large number of people. In culture, some practices and activities create the social differences with other social group. Actually the culture is total of activities, and material or spiritual things. It is basically the logical and self made system of value belief as well as set of practice which become their characteristic and move over time to time or generation to generation. It also gives to individual identity and become the part of that culture. (Stavenhagen. R, 1998) The tradition is inheriting elements of culture which move one generation to another. Actually tradition is set of customs or practices, which are regularly, perform in our daily life and which support the people in every circumstances that how they can spend their life. (Stavenhagen. R, 1998) In every culture the tradition and practices are link every one life and dominating their every part of life like birth, marriages death ceremony etc. In Pakistani culture there are some tradition related to marriage are exists like watta satta, Karo Kari, vani, Swara etc.(à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ Vani is a Pashto word derived from Vanay which stands for blood. Vani is culture practice which is very common in Pashtoon families. This cruel custom also practices in Punjab especially in Mianwali and neighboring areas, which becomes there social norm. Mianwali is a region in the north-west of Punjab province, in Pakistan. (Hashmi, A. Koukab, 2004) According to vani it is the method of resolving disputes like Qatal and Zana and settling debts between families and tribes. According to this a custom, female who is the member of criminal males family are married or given to the victims family as a compensation of his sin. These decisions are often final by a Jirga. (Chaudhry.R, 2006). In phaktoon family, girls are given Vani marriage for as compensation of murder, adultery, abduction and kidnapping which is committed by the men of the family. (Usafzai , Ali. Z. 2004) In the tribes vani is practice, which has no written rules and regulation. In vani, If one family or tribe of a village kills member of other family or tribe, then the criminal family or tribe offer a girl or woman to the aggrieved family to settle the enmity.( Khattak, R. 2009). Vani Tradition is an old age tradition. This tradition started almost 400 years ago when two Pathan tribes of Mianwali fought a bloody war. During the war approximately 800 people were killed. At that time Nawab of Tank tried to solve the problem. He called the Girga (jirga) who decided that girls are given as Qisas. Later on this decision became a custom which passed over generation to generation. This tradition is practiced in different areas of Sindh, Punjab and NWFP. (Hashmi, A. Koukab, 2004) These marriages are known as Vani, Sakh, Sawara, Sharam, Khoon Baha, and Sang Chatti with the difference of languages in different areas. (Zofeen T. E, 2006) In Punjab it is known as Vani, Sindh it is known as Sang Chati, Baluchistan it is known as Ijai, and NWFP it is known as Swara. These are an original means of different dispute resolution instrument. (Ramzan, I. 2009) The custom and tradition are unwritten and there are no hard and fast rules. So vani has practice in different ways. Mostly the vani decision is made according to the nature of crime. Hidden vani is the kind of vani when some kind of crime done for which both families are not wanted to open it for the sake of honour then it is done. It is type of secret vani. Mostly these issues are zana either zina bil jabar or zana bill raza. In this type of cases female indirectly convince the male for the particular proposal. (Salamat, R.2007). The second kind of vani which is done in front of tribe, in this case the decision is made by jirga. Mostly the decisions are done according to effected family will. (Salamat, R.2007). In vani custom the relation are decide at the time of decision in Punchayat that can be nikah, engagement or ruksati. In engagement the decision of vani women and men are decide and ruksati are decided later according to both party will. Mostly this decision is done when girls are minor or not born but their decision of marriage is done. In second type of vani is that nikah are done immediately in jirga. This decision is done when severe kind of dispute is between two families. That time parents and no one has permission to delay the nikah. In mostly cases the father or brother accepts the nikah on the behalf of girl. Immediately departure of bride it also part of vani. In some cases the bride leave parents home immediately after the decision of vani and in some cases the day and month of departure are decided in jirga and according to the decision the departure are done. (Salamat, R.2007) In some cases money and property is also given to the victim family with the women. This happen mostly in the cases of long term enmity. Secondly when rich families give vani to poor family then for the betterment of their girl criminal families give property or money to effected family. (Salamat, R. 2007) In the tribal area Vani is performed as beneficial instrument because this practice is resolve the dispute and tie the enemy in strong relation which never breaks again. When there is enmity between two families and tribes due to any reason then people of both tribes arrange the marriage for the sake of new and strong relation. The criminal party accepts crime and gives her female to other party, through giving female to his family is compensation of sin and aggrieved party forgive them. In simple word the girl is used for compensation. (Salamat, R. 2007). The main thinking behind vani is that in dispute effected family actually loss their hounor because of criminal party. Women are consider the hounor of family in that tribal areas so effected party take women of effected family as compensation. So through women actually they return their hounor. (Salamat, R. 2007). According to Islamic law of Qisas and Diyat, in compensation (Badal-i-Sulh)of murder , the criminal paid or given to a Wali, cash or in the form of moveable or movable property, which done according to mutual willingness of both parties and Shariah.( Chaudhry, Sharif, M. 1993). But in vani practice women give to another party as compensation. The some people are poor when they murder some one, then it is impossible for them to pay the Qisas and Diyat. So they give them women for compensation without money. Actually it is wrong. It is done to save the money and property, Due to materialistic world now a day even rich people of tribal areas also give the women as vani and save their money and property. (Salamat, R. 2007). According to vani custom the any girl and women of criminal party accept as vani but in community the custom are not like this. There are some proffered girls or women for compensation purpose. These are sister, daughter, daughter of brother; etc if girl of that criminal party is not available then they can buy the girl and give effected family. But mostly it is preferred that the girl and women are kid of that criminal person or group. In the effected family male member are also required for marriage purpose. There is no specification for male or bride groom. On effected side male can be brother, son, father etc. Mostly that person is chosen who are older, abnormal and those by whom marriage is not possible. (Salamat, R. 2007). It is inhuman and unislamic practice that is violates of women basic human right. It is cruel meanness towards women, treating them as a property and cattle that is used to settle disputes. Women pay for that crime which she never did. This tribal tradition makes the life of thousands of girls a living hell. (Ehsan A. 2006). Violence against women through customary practice like Vani, Watta satta, hounor killing, exists in Pakistan, Which was creating serious disorder in the society and exploit the women life. These practice is become the social norms, Like Vani marriages has become as a social norm in tribal areas of Pakistan. (Hashmi, A. Koukab, Mushtaq. R, 2004). These practice are continuously practice, in 2008 in Pakistan 50 cases of vani are done and under the jirga system and 210 cases of forced marriages are registered. (Awan. A, Z. 2009). Vani is a pre-Islamic tradition which has no scope in Islam. These practices must be condemned and punished. Vani is also against the teachings of Islam. In Islam all marriage prohibited which done under any kind of pressure. The Holy Prophet (PBUH) has at many examples to stop such kind of marriages. These marriages were known as Sabaya, which is practice in the days of Jahiliya (ignorance). In which Arabs used to capture the ladies of enemy and beaten after the battle. Vani is also the example of that marriage in two manners. A woman is married without her consent and punished for that crime which she never committed. Which is restrict in Islam(à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦.. In Islam there is no discrimination between persons on the basis of gender, color, race, nationality, wealth, etc. only the superiority of a person is base on justice, and moral excellence. So how it is possible, that any person exploited the womens life on the name of custom is Islamic practice. Islam gives women respect, honor, right to inherit property, to marry anyone with their own choice and the right to divorce. (à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦.. According to Islamic law a punishment should have four characteristics. It should be disciplinary, retributive, reformative and a limit. But vani has not any of these characteristic, because criminal himself goes free and innocent girl pay their unlimited cost. In Islam, there is no clear responsibility that every person must bear the burden of his/her own actions, and in Islam no concept of women gives as compensation in Badal-i-Sulh. It violates the law of Qisas and Diyat. (Anis, F. 2003) According to Universal Declaration of Human Rights in article 1 that all human being born free and equal right and dignity, but the vani practice is direct conflict with it 1 article. In vani practice the girl punished for those act which she never did. She is also born free and equal right like men. But she exploited in the hand of men and become commodity. As a human being she is free for take any decision, but in vani without her consent she gets marries with any person for revival. Article 16 of Universal Declaration of Human Right, that there is no limitation for any men and women to marry and form a family. Without any discrimination of race, nationality or religion they can enjoy their marriage and family. There is free full consent for both men and women to choose their spouse. But in vani neither the men consent is asked or nor the women consent for marriage. Both men and women force to marrying to end of enmity. (Hashmi, A. Koukab, 2004) The vani practice is also violates the constitutional law. Like in vani women liberty and mobility are restricted but in Article 9 of the Constitution are guarantees that any person whether men and women has freedom of liberty. It also violates Article 4 of the Constitution that guarantees that every citizen has full right to enjoy the protection of the law but in vani practice law dont support her. It has declared in Supreme Court that vani custom un-Islamic and unconstitutional under the Constitution of 1973. (Chaudhry, M.G. Ulfat, A. 2007) Pakistan is the member of CEDAW (Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination against Women) which work to protect the women from discrimination, violence against women and protect their rights. In article 16 of CEDAW in which stated that all parties shall take all proper step to eliminate discrimination against woman in all matters relating to marriage and family relations and ensure, on a basis of equality of men and women. In this article man and women both has right to enter in marriage and freely chosen the spouse. But in vani practice there are no concept consent and equal right for marriage. Women oppress for marriage by father, brother or other male member of society. (Hashmi, A. Koukab, 2004) Vani is illegal practice. In 2002, the Chief Justice of Pakistan declared vani as un-Islamic practice. In March 2004 a press reports of the Law and Justice Commission stated that, All people who include in vani decision must be punished. The Commission also came with a draft amendment to article 366-C of the Pakistan Penal Code. According to it: Those entire person who take part in the decision of vani whether any person to offer or accept of women as vani, or whether the part of Punchayat they shall be punished in jail. Which is minimum 3 year or it can exceed 10 years and also liable to a fine. Whether it is done with the consent of both the parties, or it is done with the consent of the female herself, it must be punished. But still this amendment has not been passed. (Chaudhry, M.G. Ulfat, A. 2007) In vani practice marriage are done without the consent of girl so it is also violate the Hudood ordinance section 6 in which force marriage under this practice need to protection of law, because it is illegal. (Hashmi, A. Koukab, 2004) Vani practice is done mostly as child marriage which is prohibited in Islam and all over the world laws. According to UN Convention in which child marriage are prohibited under Rights of Child in article 2. At the same according to Muslim Family Law Ordinance, that at the time of marriage the girl must have reach at the age of 16 and a boy must reached at the age of 18, and both proper consent taken before marriage. According to Punishment for Parent or Guardian Concerned in a Child Marriage Section 6. If any persons promote the child marriage in any case or in any way shall be punished minimum 1 month or with fine which extends to one thousand rupees or with both. But vani mostly girls given over are below the age of 18 which is in conflict with these law and convention. . (Ebrahim, Z. 2009). Government takes initiative against vani, Like Human Rights Commission of Pakistan and different NGOs are working against the custom of vani. The Supreme Court of Pakistan has also taken action of forced marriages in different areas of parts of Sindh, Punjab and N.W.F.P. National Judicial Policy making Committee in a meeting announced that vani is unislamic practice and it must be punished.( Minallah, S. (2007). In 2004 Pervez Musharraf, Pakistans ex- president, passed law against vani during visit by the US president, George Bush. But it didnt implement because of laws limited influence in rural areas. In rural area feudal system is so strong so only 15 vani cases have been tried under the new law in Mianwali. (à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. There are several cultural factors which become the reasons of violence against women in Pakistan. Patriarchal society, misinterpretation of Islam, and cruel practices in culture are major cause of low women status. Women are considering as object and property. Vani practice is one of the major customary practices which become vital cause of women exploitation. The women pay the cost of that sin which actually they never did. The only sin of women is that she had the blood relation with sinner or criminal. Because of this her whole life are exploited. (Jehanzeb, 2004). If girl married as vani and went to enemy house then there is no place in society. They are treated by their new families without any kindness. Even parents of vani victims are mistreat with her after marriage and not value her sacrificing. They have no place in either home or in-laws. The innocent girls are suffering forever in an environment of opposition Due to psychological trauma it difficult to handle the stressful demand of their husband, children and in-laws. (Jehanzeb, 2004). Vani is considered an evil tradition and sever punishment, especially by the feminists because the main victim is the innocent and wordless girl who sacrifices for the sake of her brothers and parents. It is a cruel behavior towards females because women bear the punishment of that crime which she never committed. (à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦.. According to the annual report of Human Rights Commission of Pakistan (2003), Vani is like of death punishment for victim women. Although they are not physically killed, but the humiliation, abuses and misery which they face in her husband home is terrible punishment which she faces in her whole life. Women face this for that crime which she never did. (p.56) Vani girl is just like a slave in their house, because she comes from the enemys family. The Taunts, curses and violence become the fate of vani women in everyday life, because she has blood relation with that person who killed their loved one. She is a continuously reminder in the in-laws of the death of their loved one. They try to give pain to the girl and her family members. (Ullah Khan, Z. 2006) This custom is like announcement of death sentence for girls, because she knows that she has to live in unwelcoming and miserable scenario till the end of her life. She must lives in aggressive situation and she will never be happy there, because there no one love and care about her. Everyone abuse and taunt her, because she has blood relation with sinner. (Ebrahim, 2006). Vani whether is used properly or is misused, is against the norms of human rights. The vani girl has to bear psychological and mental torture till the end of her life. That girl will have to live in an unsympathetic situation and she will never be happy over there. The innocent girl never understands the cause of pain upon her. Her body, mind and soul would traumatize till she dies. They have to face terrible cost of that decision. (Khan, 2009). Violence against women is not only brings physical injuries, psychological impacts of violence become the cause of pressure on their power of thinking and behaving. This violence leaves a long lasted trauma which with no proper healing. (Babur Udin, Z . 2007). Because of vani women life becomes miserable. So being a mother miserable condition and lack of security makes children turn into indirect victims. Apart from the women suffering problems with self-esteem, their children face severe emotional and behavioral problems growing up with the traumatic. (Jehanzeb, 2004). Violence against women is not only about women violence on sex, or about conflict. It is about control, their mobility, their access to material resources and their both productive and reproductive role (Heise, Ellsberg and Gottemoeller( 1992) highlight:p.2) In patriarchal society women has low status, because man considered as personal properties which control every aspect of lives of women including their life style, behavior and movements etc. Men make the decisions, and women pressurize to follow those decisions in family, tribe, community and society. Because of male dominating society women consider minority in society. (Hassan, 1995).In many tribal areas, women are even not considered as human beings. She is cattle or personal property which used for trade or to settle debts or conflicts. These types of practices become women low status in society. (Shaheed, 1990). In our society women are face discrimination and violence on a daily life, due to the cultural and religious norms and belief. In our society the concept of Char Divari, a term translated literally to mean the four walls of the house restricted women mobility. (Shaheed, F. ghazdar, A.1998) According to social norm women restricted in her father and brother home and after marriage the live in husbands home. There is no other option for her. In the society the proverb like ( aurat baap k ghar ko chorti hai dole mai or shohar k ghar ko coffin mai) mean women leave father home in bridal palanquin and that of their husbands only in coffin. These types of social norms restricted women mobility. She faces psychological and physical violence but never dare to leave it.( shaheed,F. ghazdar,A.1998) In vani practice at the time of departure no brides are made in proper way and when she leave the father home that time their relative and parents weep bitterly because they know that now her mobility is restricted. Even she never allows coming parents home expect particular occasion. (Salamat, R. 2007). In our society women continuously become the victims of this senseless violence. The hounor of family associated with women. Through out life it is internalized on her in socialization that family hounor are linked with her action. Women spend whole life in submission and fear that she doesnt do any thing which becomes the result of family dishonored in society. (Shaheed, F. ghazdar, A.1998) All her life she faces threats. She accepts all kind of violence for the sake of father, brother, or husband hounor and actually these relation makes women lives more miserable. So through out whole life women have pressure to safe the hounor of male and family in society. In vani same women has social pressure to safe the life and hounor of his male member of family. For the sake of his family so-called honour she spend whole life in hell (Babur Udin, Z. 2007) According to Human rights lawyer Hina Jilani (1998, p.143), women protection in the name of family honour from immoral activities is done for the sake of social morality actually is the oppression of basic human rights of women. Gender-based violence included physical, psychological violence on women, which is done by her husband or by another person family. Physical violence includes torture beating burning and murdering of woman. Psychological violence includes verbal aggression, humiliation, abuse, taunt etc. (International Planned Parenthood Federation (2000). When vani women went husband home where she face physical violence like beating, torture of husband or other family member and also psychological violence like curses, abuse, taunt then how her life are secured. This violence has no limitation, women face it till death. (U, Ubaid. K, Ullah, Zia. F, Aliya. 2006)

Perl Harbor :: essays papers

Perl Harbor In 1941, one of the largest American military defeats occurred. An entire naval fleet was destroyed, hundreds were killed, all before 09.00 on a Sunday. The US did not have any knowledge of this attack, partially because of ignorance, partially because of the military strategies of their Japanese opponents. The Japanese attack on the US naval base of Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941, was a classic case of "It will not happen to me!" Although the US suspected Japanese actions, they did not take a defensive stance as they believed an attack would never touch their soil. Through an examination of military history, tactics and eye witness descriptions, it will be proven that the US had no knowledge of the attack on Pearl Harbor in 1941. In the years before 1941, the war saw little American military action. After the collapse of France, American President Roosevelt promised his county that no American troops would be sent to Europe to aid in the battle against Hitler and his powerful army. These promises caused Roosevelt to be criticized by his closest advisors for his indecisiveness about declaring war . The President's defense to these accusations was he did not want to out step public opinion. As well, he believed American intervention would cause a 'mortal blow' to the Allies cause. In reality, the advisors, as well as Roosevelt, knew that Britain could not win the war without American armed intervention. Two oceans to the East, Japan was deep into a war or her own. Japanese forces were concentrated on the Chinese front to conquer and obtain. As a result of her unpopular declaration of war on China, Japan's fuel supply from the US was eliminated. Consequently, the Japanese turned to Indonesia to continue the supply of fuel for her war efforts. Fuel talks broke down as the Dutch, who were in control of the Indonesian fuel supply and, under heavy influence from the US, would not supply Japan with fuel. Desperately needing fuel to continue the war, Japan first thought of attacking Indonesia, but feared US intervention. After some thought, Japanese leaders decided that an attack directly on the US would be more appropriate to bring the US to the fuel supplies negotiating table . The first acknowledgment that Japan was a war threat came on November 27, 1941 when Washington ordered a 'War Warning'. The US feared a Japanese attack, not on America, but on the Philippines. American military leaders took little or no precautions upon the issue of warning.